Navy Island & The Caroline Affair
Navy Island’s first inhabitants were Natives who used it for fishing and building canoes. In the 1700s, the French used it as a a naval base and for ship building. When the area was taken over by the British, they also built ships there, constructing in 1763 two sloops and three schooners on the island. Canada was awarded ownership of the island in 1822. Fifteen years later it became the site of William Lyon Mackenzie’s Republic of Canada. In 1945 it was proposed as the site of the new United Nations Organization. While the island is under the jurisdiction of Parks Canada, the Niagara Parks Commission assumed custodial care of it in 1938.
The Caroline affair (also known as the Caroline case) was a series of events beginning in 1837 that strained relations between the United States and Britain.
A group of Canadian rebels, led by William Lyon Mackenzie, seeking a Canadian republic, had been forced to flee to the United States after leading the failed Upper Canada Rebellion in Upper Canada (now Ontario).
They took refuge on Navy Island on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, which separates the two countries (between Ontario and New York) and declared themselves the Republic of Canada under MacKenzie’s “general” Rensselaer Van Rensselaer (nephew of General Stephen Van Rensselaer). American sympathizers supplied them with money, provisions, and arms via the steamboat SS Caroline.
On December 29, Canadian loyalist Colonel Sir Allan MacNab and Captain Andrew Drew of the Royal Navy commanding a party of militia, acting on information and guidance from Alexander McLeod, crossed the international boundary and seized the Caroline, towed her into the current, set her afire, and cast her adrift over Niagara Falls, after killing one black American named Amos Durfee in the process. His body was later exhibited in front of a recruiting tavern in Buffalo, New York. US illustrations in the press showed the burning ship going over the falls with men falling headlong into the chasm. In reality, the ship did not immediately go over the falls. She grounded and later broke up and the pieces went over the falls later on.
It was falsely reported that dozens of Americans were killed as they were trapped on board; in fact the ship had been abandoned before being set adrift. Public opinion across the United States was outraged against the British. President Martin Van Buren protested strongly to London, but was ignored.
On May 29, 1838, 13 raiders, mostly Canadian refugees from the 1837 rebellion, led by “Pirate” Bill Johnston, retaliated by capturing, looting, and burning the British steamer Sir Robert Peel while she was in U.S. waters. President Martin Van Buren sent General Winfield Scott to prevent further American incursions into Canada. However, there were several other attacks, the biggest being the Battle of the Windmill in November 1838.
Later that year, Irish-Canadian rebel Benjamin Lett murdered a loyalist captain who had been involved in the incident.
The case was finally disposed of by U.S. Secretary of State Daniel Webster and Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton, in the course of their negotiations leading to the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. Secretary Webster admitted that the employment of force might have been justified by the necessity of self-defence, but denied that such necessity existed, while Lord Ashburton, although he maintained that the circumstances afforded excuse for what was done, apologized for the invasion of United States territory.[1]
This incident has been used to establish the principle of “anticipatory self-defense” in international politics, which holds that it may be justified only in cases in which the “necessity of that self-defence is instant, overwhelming, and leaving no choice of means, and no moment for deliberation”. This formulation is part of the Caroline test. The Caroline affair is also now invoked frequently in the course of the dispute around preemptive strike (or preemption doctrine).
History shapes the world in which we live.
The bankruptcy of Britain’s Barings Bank a few years ago shocked the financial world. Founded in 1763 the bank and its owners played an important role in the history of Britain, Canada and the United States. Sir Francis Baring, the institution’s principal owner, was an advisor to British Prime Minister William Pitt who rewarded Francis with a baronetcy in gratitude for his successful management of theEast India Company. Baring’s Bank helped fund Britain’s fight against Napoleon and revolutionary France and in 1803 the bank assisted the United States of America to finance the Louisiana Purchase [*] from Napoleon.
On the death of Francis leadership of the firm passed to his second son, Alexander, who is better known to Canadian history as Lord Ashburton. It was not as a banker but as a commissioner that Lord Ashburton assisted with the settlement of an international incident involving Canada and the United States in 1842. The incident that caused the crisis is known in history as The Caroline Affair. The Caroline was a 46-ton, copper-bottomed steamship owned by William Wells a resident of Buffalo. The vessel normally sailed between Buffalo and Schlosser [Niagara Falls, New York].In late December, 1837 the Caroline was cut out of the ice where she had been laid up for the winter and pressed into service ferrying from Schlosser to Navy Island [**]“passengers, freight, etc. with the view of making money.” Seventeen American men of means had bonded themselves to prevent Wells from suffering any loss should the Caroline encounter trouble ferrying “freedom fighters” to the little Canadian island.
Following the abortive rebellion in Upper Canada in December 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie with a thousand pound reward on his head made for the border. En route patriots in the province who loved liberty more than loot kept and cared for him as he made his way to the border. Mackenzie crossed the Niagara River in full view of his pursuers who were diverted by the wife and family of the man that rowed him across the river. Once on the other side Mac made for Buffalo where he issued an appeal to the American people for help to make the province of Upper Canada “a free, sovereign and independent state.” Some forty-eight residents of Buffalo had pledged their “mutual support and co-operation for the commendable purpose of aiding and assisting our Canadian brethren in their present struggle for liberty.”
Mackenzie decided to begin the process by seizing Navy Island in the Niagara River. On the 14th of December he and his compatriots rendezvoused on Grand Island from where in the early hours of the 15th of December 1837 they were transported in scows to Navy Island. They planned to use the island as a base from which to launch an attack and liberate Upper Canada from the “tyrants of Britain.”
Mutual hatred existed between the British and the Americans and it burnt brightest along the border. It was exacerbated by many memories and numerous animosities, “particularly on the American side where Negro slaves escaped from the land of liberty and crossed into the land of oppression.” American “freedom fighters” said they would willing pledge “their own hearts’ blood” for liberty ‘s cause.
Navy Island made an excellent fortress. The 144-hectare island some two miles above the Falls was well-wooded and surrounded by nature’s mighty moat whose treacherous current could easily carry the unwary to a cascading plunge into the maelstrom. After occupying the island Mackenzie promptly declared the founding of the Provisional Government of the State of Upper Canada.
Mackenzie delivered a proclamation inviting one and all to assist Upper Canadians to overthrow their European overseers.
INHABITANTS OF UPPER CANADA!
For nearly fifty years has our country languished under the blighting influence of military despots, strangers from Europe, ruling us, not according to laws of our choice, but by the capricious dictates of their arbitrary power. We are wearied of these oppressions, and resolved to throw off the yoke. Rise, Canadians! Rise as one man, and the glorious object of our wishes is accomplished. We have planted the Standard of Liberty in Canada, for the attainment of the following objects.
- Perpetual Peace;
- Civil and Religious Liberty;
- The Abolition of Hereditary Honors;
- A Legislature composed of a Senate and Assembly chosen by the people;
- An Executive to be composed of a Governor and other officers elected by the public voice;
- A Judiciary chosen by the Governor and Senate, and composed of the most learned, honorable, and trustworthy of our citizens;
- Free Trial by Jury-Sheriffs chosen by you;
- Freedom of the press;
- Vote by Ballot-free and peaceful township elections;
- Freedom of Trade every man to be allowed to buy at the cheapest market, and sell at the dearest;
- No man to be compelled to give military service, unless it be his choice;
- A frugal and economical Government, in order that the people may be prosperous and free from difficulty;
- An end forever to the wearisome prayers, supplications, and mockeries attendant upon our connection with the lordlings of the Colonial Office, Downing Street, London;
- Opening of the St. Lawrence to the trade of the world, so that the largest ships might pass up to Lake Superior;
- The distribution of the wild lands of the country to the industry, capital, skill, and enterprise of worthy men of all nations;For the attainment of these important objects, the patriots now in arms under the Standard of Liberty on NAVY ISLAND, Upper Canada, have established a Provisional Government of our country.
In an open spot on the wooded island Mackenzie raised in the wintry wind the Patriot tricolour, a revolutionary flag bearing twin stars representing Upper and Lower Canada. At the same time the Great Seal was approved featuring a new moon breaking through the darkness bearing the words
Via:http://www.uppercanadahistory.ca/tt/tt6.html
Other References:
With the collapse of his Navy Island scheme, Mackenzie settled in New York City in January 1838, with his family joining him in April. In May, he launched a new newspaper, Mackenzie’s Gazette, which was initially successful because the Rebellions of 1837 had created American interest in Canadian affairs. In January 1839, he moved to Rochester, New York, and spent several months trying to encourage Canadian exiles to launch a second invasion of Upper Canada, but had no success and eventually returned to New York City.
Why this post?
I camped on Navy Island as a Boy Scout at age 14, and as a baby boomer I never knew much about history beyond 8th grade Social Studies books written in the 50s, looking at the bicentennial magazine of Grand Island, occasional field trips to museums, Disney & later the History Chanel.
Recently after commenting or reposting things about the Occupy Movement and the current Great Recession & Bank/Credit Crisis it has become amazingly clear how ignorant of history I and the American public are.
The Internet, Wikipedia and Google are amazing for self education and research, far beyond what was possible just 10 years ago reading books, magazines & spending days in libraries. This alone provides a basis for a Revolution in Education.
